Seminars in Orthodontics
Volume 12, Issue 4 , Pages 216-237 , December 2006

Remodeling of Mineralized Tissues, Part I: The Frost Legacy

  • W. Eugene Roberts

      Affiliations

    • Jarabak Professor of Orthodontics, Indiana University, School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN.
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to W. Eugene Roberts, DDS, PhD, DHC (Med), Jarabak Professor of Orthodontics, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202. Phone: 317-274-3345
  • ,
  • Jeffery A. Roberts

      Affiliations

    • Private Practice of Orthodontics, Indianapolis, IN.
  • ,
  • Bruce N. Epker

      Affiliations

    • Private Practice of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Weatherford, TX.
  • ,
  • David B. Burr

      Affiliations

    • Professor and Chair of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery, Professor of Biomedical Engineering, Indiana University, School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN.
  • ,
  • James K. Hartsfield Jr

      Affiliations

    • Professor of Orthodontics. Director of Oral Facial Genetics, Indiana University, School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN.

References 

  1. Weinmann JP, Sicher H. Bone and Bones. 2nd ed.. St Louis: CV Mosby; 1955;p 508
  2. Cevidanes LH, Franco AA, Scanavini MA, et al. Clinical outcomes of Frankel appliance therapy assessed with a counterpart analysis. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2003;123:379–387
  3. Papay FA, Hardy S, Morales L, et al. “False” migration of rigid fixation appliances in pediatric craniofacial surgery. J Craniofac Surg. 1995;6:309–313
  4. Hans MG, Enlow DH, Noachtar R. Age-related differences in mandibular ramus growth: a histologic study. Angle Orthod. 1995;65:335–340
  5. Baumrind S, Korn EL, Ben-Bassat Y, et al. Quantitation of maxillary remodeling (1. A description of osseous changes relative to superimposition on metallic implants). Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1987;91:29–41
  6. Enlow DH, Bianco HJ, Eklund S. The remodeling of the edentulous mandible. J Prosthet Dent. 1976;36:685–693
  7. McNamara JA, Riolo ML, Enlow DH. Growth of the maxillary complex in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Am J Phys Anthropol. 1976;44:15–26
  8. Enlow DH, Hunter WS. A differential analysis of sutural and remodeling growth in the human face. Am J Orthod. 1966;52:823–830
  9. Enlow DH, Bang S. Growth and Remodeling of the Human Maxilla. Am J Orthod. 1965;51:446–464
  10. Enlow DH. A study of the post-natal growth and remodeling of bone. Am J Anat. 1962;110:79–101
  11. Epker BN, Frost HM. A histological study of remodeling at the periosteal, haversian canal, cortical endosteal, and trabecular endosteal surfaces in human rib. Anat Rec. 1965;152:129–135
  12. Frost HM. Tetracycline-based histological analysis of bone remodeling. Calcif Tissue Res. 1969;3:211–237
  13. Rubin C, Gross T, Qin YX, et al. Differentiation of the bone-tissue remodeling response to axial and torsional loading in the turkey ulna. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996;78:1523–1533
  14. Miller MA, Omura TH, Miller SC. Increased cancellous bone remodeling during lactation in beagles. Bone. 1989;10:279–285
  15. Meunier PJ, Arlot M, Chavassieux P, et al. The effects of alendronate on bone turnover and bone quality. Int J Clin Pract Suppl. 1999;101:14–17
  16. Melsen F, Mosekilde L. Tetracycline double-labeling of iliac trabecular bone in 41 normal adults. Calcif Tissue Res. 1978;26:99–102
  17. Lanyon LE. Osteocytes, strain detection, bone modeling and remodeling. Calcif Tissue Int. 1993;53(Suppl 1):S102–S106discussion S106-S107
  18. High WB, Capen CC, Black HE. Effects of thyroxine on cortical bone remodeling in adult dogs: a histomorphometric study. Am J Pathol. 1981;102:438–446
  19. Heaney RP. The basis for the post-parathyroidectomy increase in bone mass. J Bone Miner Res. 2002;17(Suppl 2):N154–N157
  20. Eriksen EF, Mosekilde L, Melsen F. Trabecular bone remodeling and bone balance in hyperthyroidism. Bone. 1985;6:421–428
  21. Burr DB. Remodeling and the repair of fatigue damage. Calcif Tissue Int. 1993;53(Suppl 1):S75–S80discussion S80-S81
  22. Buckwalter JA, Glimcher MJ, Cooper RR, et al. Bone biology (II: Formation, form, modeling, remodeling, and regulation of cell function). Instr Course Lect. 1996;45:387–399
  23. Avioli LV. Hormonal alterations and osteoporotic syndromes. J Bone Miner Res. 1993;8(Suppl 2):S511–S514
  24. Havers C. Osteologica Nova [Some new observations on bone]. 1691;Berlin
  25. Hunter J. The Natural History of the Human Teeth. 1778;London
  26. Goldberg KE. The skeleton: fantastic framework. In:  Gersten J editors. The Human Body. Washington, DC: US News Books; 1982;p. 165
  27. Frost HM, Villaneuva AR, Roth H, et al. Tetracycline bone labeling. J New Drugs. 1961;1:206–216
  28. Epker BN, Hattner R, Frost HM. Radial rate of osteon closure: its application in the study of bone formation in metabolic bone disease. J Lab Clin Med. 1964;64:643–653
  29. Epker BN, Frost HM. The parabolic index: a proposed index of the degree of osteoporosis in ribs. J Gerontol. 1964;19:469–473
  30. Epker BN, Frost HM. Aging and the kinetics of human osteon formation. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1964;12:401–409
  31. Epker BN, Frost HM. The direction of transverse drift of actively forming osteons in human rib cortex. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1965;47:1211–1215
  32. Epker BN, Kelin M, Frost HM. Magnitude and location of cortical bone loss in human rib with aging. Clin Orthop. 1965;41:198–203
  33. Epker BN, Frost HM. Correlation of bone resorption and formation with the physical behavior of loaded bone. J Dent Res. 1965;44:33–41
  34. Epker BN, Frost HM. Periosteal appositional bone growth from age two to age seventy in man (A tetracycline evaluation). Anat Rec. 1966;154:573–577
  35. Epker BN, Frost HM. Biomechanical control of bone growth and development: a histologic and tetracycline study. J Dent Res. 1966;45:364–371
  36. Epker BN, Frost HM. The nature of bone resorption and formation in normalcy and disease. Henry Ford Hosp Med J. 1968;16:29–39
  37. Hattner R, Epker BN, Frost HM. Suggested sequential mode of control of changes in cell behaviour in adult bone remodelling. Nature. 1965;206(983):489–490
  38. Ilnicki L, Epker BN, Frost HM, et al. The radial rate of osteon closure evaluated by means of in vivo tetracycline labeling in beagle dog rib. J Lab Clin Med. 1966;67:447–454
  39. Ramser JR, Duncan H, Landeros O, et al. Measurements of bone dynamics in seven patients with salicylate-treated rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1966;9:424–429
  40. Takahashi H, Epker B, Frost HM. Resorption precedes formative activity. Surg Forum. 1964;15:437–438
  41. Roberts WE. Tribute to Professor Webster S.S. Jee. Semin Orthod. 2004;10:97–98
  42. Chen J, Chen K, Garetto LP, et al. Mechanical response to functional and therapeutic loading of a retromolar endosseous implant used for orthodontic anchorage to mesially translate mandibular molars. Implant Dent. 1995;4:246–258
  43. Chen J, Esterle M, Roberts WE. Mechanical response to functional loading around the threads of retromolar endosseous implants utilized for orthodontic anchorage: coordinated histomorphometric and finite element analysis. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 1999;14:282–289
  44. Deguchi T, Takano-Yamamoto T, Kanomi R, et al. The use of small titanium screws for orthodontic anchorage. J Dent Res. 2003;82:377–381
  45. Goodacre CJ, Brown DT, Roberts WE, et al. Prosthodontic considerations when using implants for orthodontic anchorage. J Prosthet Dent. 1997;77:162–170
  46. Parr JA, Garetto LP, Wohlford ME, et al. Sutural expansion using rigidly integrated endosseous implants: an experimental study in rabbits. Angle Orthod. 1997;67:283–290
  47. Roberts W. Dental implant anchorage for cost-effective management dental and skeletal malocclusion. In:  Epker B,  Stella JP,  Fish LC editor. Dentofacial Deformities. St Louis: Mosby; 1999;p. 2375–2408
  48. Roberts WE. Rigid endosseous anchorage and tricalcium phosphate (TCP)-coated implants. Calif Dent Assoc J. 1984;12(12):158–161
  49. Roberts WE. Bone dynamics of osseointegration, ankylosis, and tooth movement. J Indiana Dent Assoc. 1999;78:24–32
  50. Roberts WE. Orthodontic anchorage with osseointegrated implants: bone physiology, metabolism, and biomechanics. In:  Higuchi KW editors. Orthodontic Applications of Osseointegrated Implants. Chicago: Quintessence Publishing; 2000;p. 161–190
  51. Roberts WE. When planning to use an implant for anchorage, how long do you have to wait to apply force after implant placement?. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2002;121:14A
  52. Roberts WE, Arbuckle GR, Analoui M. Rate of mesial translation of mandibular molars using implant-anchored mechanics. Angle Orthod. 1996;66:331–338
  53. Roberts WE, Hartsfield JK. Multidisciplinary management of congenital and acquired compensated malocclusions: diagnosis, etiology and treatment planning. J Indiana Dent Assoc. 1997;76:42–52
  54. Roberts WE, et al. Rigid endosseous implants for orthodontic and orthopedic anchorage. Angle Orthod. 1989;59:247–256
  55. Roberts WE, Marshall KJ, Mozsary PG. Rigid endosseous implant utilized as anchorage to protract molars and close an atrophic extraction site. Angle Orthod. 1990;60:135–152
  56. Roberts WE, Nelson CL, Goodacre CJ. Rigid implant anchorage to close a mandibular first molar extraction site. J Clin Orthod. 1994;28:693–704
  57. Roberts WE, Smith RK, Ziberman Y, et al. Osseous adaptation to continuous loading of rigid endosseous implants. Am J Orthod. 1984;86:95–111
  58. Frost HM, Jee WS. On the rat model of human osteopenias and osteoporoses. Bone Miner. 1992;18:227–236
  59. Jee WS, Li XJ, Schaffler MB. Adaptation of diaphyseal structure with aging and increased mechanical usage in the adult rat: a histomorphometrical and biomechanical study. Anat Rec. 1991;230:332–338
  60. Jee WS, Frost HM. Skeletal adaptations during growth. Triangle. 1992;31(2/3):77–88
  61. Li XJ, Jee WS. Adaptation of diaphyseal structure to aging and decreased mechanical loading in the adult rat: a densitometric and histomorphometric study. Anat Rec. 1991;229:291–297
  62. Schiessl H, Frost HM, Jee WS. Estrogen and bone-muscle strength and mass relationships. Bone. 1998;22:1–6
  63. Frost HM, Jee WS. Perspectives: a vital biomechanical model of the endochondral ossification mechanism. Anat Rec. 1994;240:435–446
  64. Frost HM, Jee WS. Perspectives: applications of a biomechanical model of the endochondral ossification mechanism. Anat Rec. 1994;240:447–455
  65. Ferretti JL, Frost HM, Gasser JA, et al. Perspectives on osteoporosis research: its focus and some insights from a new paradigm. Calcif Tissue Int. 1995;57:399–404
  66. Frost HM, Ferretti JL, Jee WS. Perspectives: some roles of mechanical usage, muscle strength, and the mechanostat in skeletal physiology, disease, and research. Calcif Tissue Int. 1998;62:1–7
  67. Yao W, Jee WS, Chen J, et al. Making rats rise to erect bipedal stance for feeding partially prevented orchidectomy-induced bone loss and added bone to intact rats. J Bone Miner Res. 2000;15:1158–1168
  68. Yao W, Jee WS, Chen J, et al. Erect bipedal stance exercise partially prevents orchidectomy-induced bone loss in the lumbar vertebrae of rats. Bone. 2000;27:667–675
  69. Chen JL, Yao W, Frost HM, et al. Bipedal stance exercise enhances antiresorption effects of estrogen and counteracts its inhibitory effect on bone formation in sham and ovariectomized rats. Bone. 2001;29:126–133
  70. Jaworski ZF, Lok E. The rate of osteoclastic bone erosion in Haversian remodeling sites of adult dog’s rib. Calcif Tissue Res. 1972;10:103–112
  71. Jaworski ZF, Lok E, Wellington JL. Impaired osteoclastic function and linear bone erosion rate in secondary hyperparathyroidism associated with chronic renal failure. Clin Orthop. 1975;107:298–310
  72. Minaire P, Meunier P, Edouard C, et al. [Histomorphometric and biological data on osteoporosis due to immobilization]. Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic. 1975;42(7-9):479–488
  73. Meunier PJ, Coindre JM, Edouard CM, et al. Bone histomorphometry in Paget’s disease (Quantitative and dynamic analysis of pagetic and nonpagetic bone tissue). Arthritis Rheum. 1980;23:1095–1103
  74. Chase DC, Gattozzi JG, Smith K, et al. Palatal graft in preprosthetic surgery. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1978;45:516–527
  75. Arnold JS. A method for embedding undecalcified bone for histologic sectioning, and its application to radioautography. Science. 1951;114(2955):178–180
  76. Jee WS. The past, present, and future of bone morphometry: its contribution to an improved understanding of bone biology. J Bone Miner Metab. 2005;23(Suppl):1–10
  77. In:  Recker RR editors. Bone Histomorphometry: Techniques and Interpretation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1983;306
  78. Parfitt AM, et al. Bone histomorphometry: standardization of nomenclature, symbols, and units (Report of the ASBMR Histomorphometry Nomenclature Committee). J Bone Miner Res. 1987;2:595–610
  79. Milch RA, Rall DP, Tobie JE. Fluorescence of tetracycline antibiotics in bone. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1958;40A:897–910
  80. Frost HM. Bone histomorphometry: choice of marking agent and labeling schedule. In:  Recker RR editors. Bone Histomorphometry: Techniques and Interpretation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1983;p. 37–52
  81. Roberts WE. Bone physiology, metabolism, and biomechanics in orthodontic practice. In:  Graber TM,  Vanardall RL,  Vig KWL editor. Orthodontics: Current Principles and Techniques. St Louis: Elsevier Mosby; 2005;p. 221–292
  82. Roberts WE, Chase DC, Jee SS. Counts of labelled mitoses in the orthodontically-stimulated periodontal ligament in the rat. Arch Oral Biol. 1974;19:665–670
  83. Roberts WE, Jee WS. Cell kinetics of orthodontically-stimulated and non-stimulated periodontal ligament in the rat. Arch Oral Biol. 1974;19:17–21
  84. Roberts WE, Turley PK, Brezniak N, et al. Implants: Bone physiology and metabolism. Calif Dent Assoc J. 1987;15(10):54–61
  85. Roberts WE. Bone tissue interface. Int J Oral Implantol. 1988;5:71–74
  86. Roberts WE, Garetto LP, DeCastro RA. Remodeling of devitalized bone threatens periosteal margin integrity of endosseous titanium implants with threaded or smooth surfaces: indications for provisional loading and axially directed occlusion. J Indiana Dent Assoc. 1989;68(4):19–24
  87. Garetto LP, Chen J, Parr JA, et al. Remodeling dynamics of bone supporting rigidly fixed titanium implants: a histomorphometric comparison in four species including humans. Implant Dent. 1995;4:235–243
  88. Huja SS, Katona TR, Burr DB, et al. Microdamage adjacent to endosseous implants. Bone. 1999;25:217–222
  89. Roberts WE, Morey ER. Proliferation and differentiation sequence of osteoblast histogenesis under physiological conditions in rat periodontal ligament. Am J Anat. 1985;174:105–118
  90. Roberts WE, Mozsary PG, Klingler E. Nuclear size as a cell-kinetic marker for osteoblast differentiation. Am J Anat. 1982;165:373–384
  91. Roberts WE, Wood HB, Chambers DW, et al. Vascularly oriented differentiation gradient of osteoblast precursor cells in rat periodontal ligament: implications for osteoblast histogenesis and periodontal bone loss. J Periodontal Res. 1987;22:461–467
  92. Storey E. Growth and remodeling of bone and bones. Am J Orthod. 1972;62:142–165
  93. Roberts W, Huja S, Roberts J. Bone modeling: biomechanics, molecular mechanisms and clinical perspectives. Semin Orthod. 2004;10:123–161
  94. Bagge M. A model of bone adaptation as an optimization process. J Biomech. 2000;33:1349–1357
  95. Bidez MW, Misch CE. Issues in bone mechanics related to oral implants. Implant Dent. 1992;1:289–294
  96. Bouvier M, Hylander WL. Effect of bone strain on cortical bone structure in macaques (Macaca mulatta). J Morphol. 1981;167:1–12
  97. Boyde A, Wolfe LA, Jones SJ, et al. Microscopy of bone cells, bone tissue, and bone healing around implants. Implant Dent. 1992;1:117–125
  98. Burr DB, Schaffler MB, Yang KH, et al. The effects of altered strain environments on bone tissue kinetics. Bone. 1989;10:215–221
  99. Baumrind S, Bravo LA, Ben-Bassat Y, et al. Lower molar and incisor displacement associated with mandibular remodeling. Angle Orthod. 1997;67:93–102
  100. Isaacson RJ, Worms FW, Speidel TM. Measurement of tooth movement. Am J Orthod. 1976;70:290–303
  101. Roberts WE, Goodwin WC, Heiner SR. Cellular response to orthodontic force. Dent Clin North Am. 1981;25:3–17
  102. Roberts ED, Matlock CL, Joanen T, et al. Bone morphometrics and tetracycline marking patterns in young growing American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). J Wildl Dis. 1988;24:67–70
  103. Chen J, Lu X, Paydar N, et al. Mechanical simulation of the human mandible with and without an endosseous implant. Med Eng Phys. 1994;16:53–61
  104. Katona TR, Paydar N, Akay HU, et al. Stress analysis of bone modeling response to rat molar orthodontics. J Biomech. 1995;28:27–38
  105. Huja SS, Katona TR, Moore BK, et al. Microhardness and anisotropy of the vital osseous interface and endosseous implant supporting bone. J Orthop Res. 1998;16:54–60
  106. Parr JA, Garetto LP, Wohlford ME, et al. Implant-borne suture expansion in rabbits: a histomorphometric study of the supporting bone. J Biomed Mater Res. 1999;45:1–10
  107. Roberts WE. Physiology of bone remodeling during tooth movement. Semin Orthod. 2000;6:173–182
  108. Enlow DH. Handbook of Facial Growth. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1982;486
  109. Enlow DH, Hans MG. Essentials of Facial Growth. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996;303
  110. Yen PK, Shaw JH. Remodeling of compact bone studied with lead acetate as an intravital stain. J Dent Res. 1977;56:961–966
  111. Simmons DJ, Russell JE, Winter F, et al. Effect of flight on the non-weight-bearing bones of rat skeleton. Am J Physiol. 1983;244:R319–R326
  112. Yasuoka T, Oka N. Histomorphometric study of trabecular bone remodeling during condylar process fracture healing in the growing period: experimental study. J Oral Maxillofacial Surg. 1991;49:981–988
  113. Wie H, Hero H, Solheim T. Hot isostatic pressing-processed hydroxyapatite-coated titanium implants: light microscopic and scanning electron microscopy investigations. Int J Oral Maxillofacial Implants. 1998;13:837–844
  114. Fujita T, Kawata T, Tokimasa C, et al. Influence of oestrogen and androgen on modelling of the mandibular condylar bone in ovariectomized and orchiectomized growing mice. Arch Oral Biol. 2001;46:57–65
  115. Radlanski RJ, Klarkowski MC. Bone remodeling of the human mandible during prenatal development. J Orofac Orthop. 2001;62:191–201
  116. Fish JM, Misch CE. Mandibular bone growth induced by a hydroxylapatite-coated subperiosteal implant: a case report. J Oral Implantol. 2000;26:267–275
  117. Ubios AM, Piloni MJ, Marzorati M, et al. Bone growth is impaired by uranium intoxication. Acta Odontol Latinoam. 1994;8:3–8
  118. Ma B, Sampson W, Wilson D, et al. A histomorphometric study of adaptive responses of cancellous bone in different regions in the sheep mandibular condyle following experimental forward mandibular displacement. Arch Oral Biol. 2002;47:519–527
  119. Seto I, Tachikawa N, Mori M, et al. Restoration of occlusal function using osseointegrated implants in the canine mandible reconstructed by rhBMP-2. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2002;13:536–541
  120. Gorustovich AA, Esposito MA, Guglielmotti MB, et al. Mandibular bone remodeling under a choline-deficient diet: a histomorphometric study in rats. J Periodontol. 2003;74:831–837
  121. Harvold EP. Centric relation (A study of pressure and tension systems in bone modeling and mandibular positioning). Dent Clin North Am. 1975;19:473–484
  122. O’Ryan F, Epker BN. Temporomandibular joint function and morphology: observations on the spectra of normalcy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1984;58:272–279
  123. Vargervik K. Some aspects of bone formation and remodeling pertinent to craniofacial development and reconstructive treatment. Acta Odontol Scand. 1995;53:167–173
  124. Nielsen IL, Bravo LA, Miller AJ. Normal maxillary and mandibular growth and dentoalveolar development in Macaca mulatta (A longitudinal cephalometric study from 2 to 5 years of age). Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1989;96:405–415
  125. Oberheim MC, Mao JJ. Bone strain patterns of the zygomatic complex in response to simulated orthopedic forces. J Dent Res. 2002;81:608–612
  126. Lenz J, Rong Q, Schweizerhof K, et al. FE-simulation of bone modeling around an implant in the mandible in two-stage versus one-stage implantation. Biomed Tech (Berl). 2002;47(Suppl 1 Pt 1):298–301
  127. Konig B, de Carvalho Lopesqq C. Bone remodeling analysis after placement of dental implants using polyfluorochrome sequential labeling. Ann Anat. 2002;184:241–244
  128. Stanford CM. Biomechanical and functional behavior of implants. Adv Dent Res. 1999;13:88–92
  129. Stanford CM, Brand RA. Toward an understanding of implant occlusion and strain adaptive bone modeling and remodeling. J Prosthet Dent. 1999;81:553–561
  130. Middleton J, Jones M, Wilson A. The role of the periodontal ligament in bone modeling: the initial development of a time-dependent finite element model. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1996;109:155–162
  131. Brunski JB. Biomechanical factors affecting the bone-dental implant interface. Clin Mater. 1992;10:153–201
  132. Shibata S, Suda N, Fukada K, et al. Mandibular coronoid process in parathyroid hormone-related protein-deficient mice shows ectopic cartilage formation accompanied by abnormal bone modeling. Anat Embryol (Berl). 2003;207:35–44
  133. Orestes-Cardoso S, Nefussi JR, Lezot F, et al. Msx1 is a regulator of bone formation during development and postnatal growth: in vivo investigations in a transgenic mouse model. Connect Tissue Res. 2002;43(2-3):153–160
  134. Copray JC, Jansen HW, Duterloo HS. Growth of the mandibular condylar cartilage of the rat in serum-free organ culture. Arch Oral Biol. 1983;28:967–974
  135. Copray JC, Jansen HW, Duterloo HS. Growth and growth pressure of mandibular condylar and some primary cartilages of the rat in vitro. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1986;90:19–28
  136. Shaw NE, Lacey E. The influence of corticosteriods on the normal and papain-treated epiphysial growth plate in the rabbit. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1975;57:228–233
  137. Jee WS, Blackwood EL, Dockum NL, et al. Bio-assay of responses of growing bones to cortisol. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1966;49:39–63
  138. Seeman E, Delmas PD. Reconstructing the skeleton with intermittent parathyroid hormone. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2001;12(7):281–283
  139. Jerome CP, Burr DB, Van Bibber T, et al. Treatment with human parathyroid hormone (1-34) for 18 months increases cancellous bone volume and improves trabecular architecture in ovariectomized cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Bone. 2001;28:150–159
  140. Tucker A, Sharpe P. The cutting-edge of mammalian development; how the embryo makes teeth. Nat Rev Genet. 2004;5:499–508
  141. Vardimon AD, Graber TM, Pitaru S. Repair process of external root resorption subsequent to palatal expansion treatment. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1993;103:120–130
  142. Bosshardt DD, Schroeder HE. How repair cementum becomes attached to the resorbed roots of human permanent teeth. Acta Anat (Basel). 1994;150:253–266
  143. Wesselink PR, Beertsen W. Repair processes in the periodontium following dentoalveolar ankylosis: the effect of masticatory function. J Clin Periodontol. 1994;21:472–478
  144. Owman-Moll P, Kurol J, Lundgren D. Repair of orthodontically induced root resorption in adolescents. Angle Orthod. 1995;65:403–408discussion 409-410
  145. Brudvik P, Rygh P. The repair of orthodontic root resorption: an ultrastructural study. Eur J Orthod. 1995;17:189–198
  146. Kimura R, Anan H, Matsumoto A, et al. Dental root resorption and repair: histology and histometry during physiological drift of rat molars. J Periodontal Res. 2003;38:525–532

PII: S1073-8746(06)00050-8

doi: 10.1053/j.sodo.2006.08.002

Seminars in Orthodontics
Volume 12, Issue 4 , Pages 216-237 , December 2006